Introduction
The twentieth century, a century that many will look back upon as the defining one of world history. It was a time when old empires were smashed upon the rocks of war and new ones were forged with steel and blood. The optimism that ran high at the turn of the century soon gave way to the bloody battlefields of France and Belgium, washed away like the blood of young men in Flanders fields. Old grievances would surface to haunt new generations; millions would die because of nationalism and communism. Within a span of only forty years empires that had lasted hundreds of years would be gone, dissolved by decades of strife and unending horror. Yet while the old empires would be broken asunder, new ones would rise to take their place.
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The Spanish-American War
"Remember the Maine!"
That slogan had helped to ignite the Spanish-American War in 1898. While the war had concluded swiftly the results would prove to be profound. Former Spanish colonies fell into American hands in both the Caribbean and Pacific. Many would coin it as the beginning of American Imperialism. The nations of Europe took note of the quick and decisive victory by the Americans, however their reactions where tempered by the fact that Spain was by now considered a second rate military power after a long decline.
Both the Navy and Army showed prowess in the campaign against Spain. The Navy sparked the first decisive victory of the conflict at Manila Bay. Commodore Dewey had entered the harbor and struck a harsh blow to the fate of the Spanish quickly, while the Spanish gunners where at mass, or with their families on a Sunday morning the Commodore had his fleet lay waste to the Spanish fleet. The action resulted in a total victory with no loss of American life and when word of the battle reached America the Commodore was acclaimed a hero. His famous words where read by millions. "You may fire when ready, Gridley"
A young Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War with his Rough Riders
That success was soon followed up by the successful capture of both Guam and Wake islands. By early July of 1898 the American forces had successfully invaded Cuba and where fighting hard near Santiago. Theodore Roosevelt was at this time made a national hero when his unit the "Rough Riders" preformed their famous charge down San Juan Hill close to Santiago. Spanish forces would surrender en masse by August. Puerto Rico soon followed. It was a decisive victory, preformed far quicker then anyone had hoped for. Casualties were light, the navy had proved its worth and the army was a force to be reckoned with. The groundwork had been laid for the Great White Fleet which was soon to come and the United States was one way or another now embroiled in a guerilla war with Philippine independence forces.
While the turn of the century was a joyous occasion to most people in the world it was not a totally peaceful world. The empires that where carved by the blood of previous generations still stood, a testament to European strength. New ones had joined the old through the uniting will of nationalism under Bismark and Garibaldi. While Europe itself was at peace it was not so within the rest of the world. The Boer war still raged on in South Africa; not to end for another two years and vicious Chinese resentment was soon to erupt with the Boxer Rebellion. These were however conflicts by proxy for the large empires of the day, the stuff of headlines in Europe at best. In America the nation was still under the guidance of President McKinley, soon to be reelected for a second term.
With the death of Vice President Garrett Hobart in 1899 the Republican ticket was in need of a new Vice President. Spurred on by the media pressure by Hearst, President McKinley eventually selected the young Theodore Roosevelt to be his running mate for the 1900 Presidential Election. The election was easily won by McKinley whose support still ran high from recent war victories. His opponent William Jennings Bryan was hurt during the election for his vocal opposition to the Spanish-American war several years prior and despite his vigorous touring of the country was crushed by a landslide of popular Republican support.
With a solid grasp upon both the House and Senate the Republicans further strengthened their hand in the new imperial possessions. Thousands more soldiers where sent to the Philippines to combat the growing insurgency that threatened the American hold on the islands. Cuba whose independence had been guaranteed only a few years earlier was made a "protectorate", an ad hoc puppet state at best.
On September 6th, 1901 at the Pan-American Exposition President McKinley was shot twice in the chest and would die shortly after. His killer Leon Czolgosz a Russian-Polish immigrant was promptly executed. With the President dead it was time for the young Theodore Roosevelt to ascend to the Presidency.
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The Road to War
Theodore Roosevelt, also know as Teddy became the twenty fifth President of the United States after the assassination of President McKinley
On September 14th, 1901 Theodore Roosevelt became the twenty fifth President of the United States. The death of McKinley set off a powder keg of anger against any and all vocal socialist and anarchists in the country, the new President only strengthen the cause against these political fractions in his inaugural address in Washington on September 25th.
"....the assassination of President McKinley has shown unequivocally that the forces of socialism and anarchism are fundamentally against the ideals and principles of America at its core. We cannot allow these groups to undermine the vast freedoms from which we enjoy. Much has been given us, which we must rightfully hold onto throughout the crisis that may grip our country. We are the heirs of a just and right set of ideals for which we cannot falter from, though the forces that assail us may be strong in determination we cannot fail. The forces that bind the American people are stronger then whatever our common enemy can throw at us, and with stoic resolve we will beat back these forces for all time."
The speech was met with unrivalled praise by the media and both parties. He spent the winter vigorously campaigning across the country, often with several members of his former Rough Riders regiment. With popular support firmly on his side he returned to Washington in the early spring.
By early 1903 it was clear that the situation in Central America was spiraling out of control, particularly in Cuba and Columbia. In Cuba there was widespread rioting in Santiago and other major cities over the American military presence. Tensions climaxed on July 16th when U.S. servicemen fired upon an unruly crowd, dozens where killed by the accurate rifle fire. This act only furthered the rioting and within a month President Roosevelt had sent two more divisions to the island for "defensive purposes". In reality the independent state of Cuba had in all actuality vanished, replaced with an American led puppet state.
In Columbia rebels in the Panamanian area had been involved in a long and drawn out civil war with Columbian troops. Giving tacit support Roosevelt facilitated the creation of an independent Panama. As a result the creation of the Panama canal was allowed to go ahead and over the next decade one of the wonders of the modern world would be built off the lives of thousands workers. This was the result of Roosevelt's brand of "Big Stick Diplomacy". While it galvanized anger towards the United States in many parts of the Caribbean and South America it only endeared the President to the American voters.
Meanwhile the first signs of major war where showing themselves. In early 1904 the Russo-Japanese war began over competing ambitions of Russia and Japan in Manchuria and Korea. The Japanese where written off early on as little better then savages who could not conceivably defeat a major European nation. This notion was soon smashed like the Russian fleet based at Port Arthur. This feat was preformed again when the Baltic fleet after a ten thousand mile journey was utterly destroyed at the Battle of Tsushima. With confidence shaken and all of their naval power depleted the Russians capitulated and a peace was agreed to in part thanks to Theodore Roosevelt with the Treaty of Portsmouth.
Roosevelt won his reelection handily in 1904 and served as President until the end of his term in 1909. He contemplated running for a third term at the time but handed the reins to his friend and supposed protégé William Howard Taft. Once again the Democratic ticket of William Jennings Bryan was unable to defeat the popular Republican Party. So in the election of 1908 William Howard Taft became the 27th President of the United States of America.
Taft proved to be an unpopular replacement for Theodore Roosevelt. The problems began to show even at his inaugural address, at over twenty minutes long he was said to be ineloquent at best. His views often disagreed harshly from those of the former President who still controlled much respect within the Republican Party. As a result the Taft administration was crippled as President had to not only contend with the Democratic Party but much dissent within his own party.
It came as no surprise then when Taft in 1912 was unable to get reelected. After four years of political infighting the people had enough. Taft was defeated by democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson. For the first time since 1896 the Republican Party had been ousted from the Presidency. With the signs of war looming large upon the doorstep of the world it seemed as though it would be Woodrow Wilson who would lead the American people through the most trying of times.
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Arms Races and Woodrow Wilson
Tensions had been mounting in Europe for over fifty years since the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to the Germans was a stain that was burned into the collective French consciousness. Colonial rivalry in Africa and Asia had only exacerbated the problem. While Bismark the great unifier of the German people had built Germany to be a great power, more so then France through diplomatic and military means his work was nearly undone by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Bismark had orchestrated alliances with not only Austria-Hungary but Russia as well, negating the possibility of a two front war in case a conflict with France where to happen. While the new Kaiser renewed the alliance with Austria-Hungary he failed to do so with his Russian allies, a fact the French where to soon capitalize on.
The Kaiser had also rattled the British Empire when in the late 1800's he began a large naval race guided by the then German Secretary of Navy - Alfred Von Tirpitz, the goal was to eventually rival the Royal Fleet in terms of numbers and quality. The naval race was to eventually culminate in Germany hosting the second largest fleet in the world, forty percent smaller then the Royal Fleet. The armlament race eventually would spawn a revolution in ship design, particularly in regards to battleships. The British in response to German shipbuilding set afloat the HMS Dreadnaught in 1906. It was the largest, most powerful ship ever constructed with twice the destructive capabilities of any other ship. This development would eventually lead to all other ships built before her to be called pre-dreadnaughts.
Commissioned in 1906 the HMS Dreadnaught would prompt a near phase of the British/German shipbuilding race
The arms race would eventually help the British to sign an Entente Cordiale with France in 1904, they were soon joined with Russia to form the Triple Entente. This web of alliances had come close to provoking war already in 1905 over the Tangier crisis. Kaiser Wilhelm had taken a visit to French Morocco and stated rather bluntly about favoring Moroccan independence, the comments caused an instant political crisis. The British were quick to support their allies and by July, 1906 Germany had mobilized its reserves. French troops moved to the borders but a hastily arranged diplomatic conference involving over twenty nations showed the lack of support Germany had during the affair and they relented.
These developments meant little to America however; the general population did not worry themselves about the affairs going on in Europe. President Taft had been in office for four years and the voters were ready for a change, his presidency had begun hopefully as he had been the hand picked successor for the popular Theodore Roosevelt. Instead Taft was mired with political bickering within his own party between west and east coast Republicans. Taft had indeed continued Roosevelt's much publicized trust busting and several other progressive initiatives. These measures where too far for east coast Republicans, and not far enough for the ones on the west coast. As a result by the 1912 election the Republican party was split, Roosevelt had broken off and took a large amount of Republicans with him. This would prove to be a godsend for the Democratic party who fielded Woodrow Wilson as their candidate. On election night the Republican split proved to be decisive in the election of the Democrat, while he only garnered forty percent of the popular vote the Republican infighting allowed him to take 435 of the electoral votes in comparison to Roosevelt's 88 and Taft's 8. Wilson would be the first Democrat president since Grover Cleveland.
Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States. He was elected mostly because of Republican infighting and initially his Presidency was seen as weak by outside observers.
The first President to hold a doctoral degree, Woodrow Wilson was a progressive politician. He had previously taught political economy and jurisprudence at Princeton University, published a dissertation called Congressional Government and was eventually to be elected the President of Princeton in 1902. Wilson was a staunch supporter of progressive measures such as a reduced working day, higher wages and more governmental spending for social services. This attracted the attention of the Democratic Party and his was enticed to run for public office in 1910, eventually winning the governorship of New Jersey. He continued his meteoric rise in the Democratic party to eventually become the candidate for the 1912 federal election, edging out Beauchamp Clark and William Bryan Jennings for the party nomination. (Jennings was trying to secure his fourth run for the Presidency)
Woodrow Wilson was thus elected the 28th President of the United States. Suffrage, Segregation and the Mexican Revolution all were to prove to be important topics in his early presidency. Wilson though was an inexperienced politician though and he had only come to prominence in 1910 with his victory in New Jersey, he had only become the Democratic nominee as a result of William Bryan Jennings would had to concede defeat in the nominee election, thus allowing him to essentially pick the next President of the United States. Rewarding this Wilson named Jennings as his Secretary of State.
These developments only made Wilson look weak and confirmed many pundits vision that his Presidency would end in failure. Wilson was not deterred though as his pushed through legislation that began tariff reform a move that Theodore Roosevelt once called political suicide. With war looming across the Atlantic and an unsteady Mexico to the south President Wilson had many problems on his hands.
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The Mexican Revolution
Porfirio Diaz, his ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1911, and while he suppressed democratic elections multiple times during his rule he did introduce vast modernization reforms.
While Europe traveled closer to war in the early part of the century little attention was given to the problems arising in Mexico. At the turn of the century the country was run Porfirio Diaz, he had overthrown the previous government in 1876 and quickly promised reform for the country. By 1880 he had stepped down and had one of his trustworthy men takeover leadership of the country only to return to the Presidency in 1884. This caused outspoken rage by several underground newspapers that criticized his former promise to not run for re-election.
Diaz soon manipulated the elections through not only electoral fraud but also assassinations of popular opposition leaders. Though the country was griped essentially by a dictatorship many reforms where indeed made to the country, particularly in regards to industry and the transportation system of the country. Throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century Mexico saw a tenfold increase in the mileage of its rail lines, including a strategically importantly line from Mexico City to Veracruz. Hundreds of miles of telegraph wires where also strung to important military establishments and large cities. Large industry was constructed in Mexico city. However the capital for this modernization had to come from somewhere, that place was the United States.
This was a problem for Diaz for it put him at odds with the large plantation owners all over Mexico. The modernization would give Mexico a more capitalistic economy, something the agrarian ruling class did not want. With pressures mounting because of the suppression of fair elections and the change of economic systems it was only a matter of time before Porfirio Diaz was forced from office. In 1910 the dam burst after another election was rigged, popular support for his opponent Francisco Madero was strong and with another abuse of the system Madero called for revolt. The Mexican Revolution had begun.
With the Mexican Revolution in full swing by 1912 the country was rife with all sorts of revolutionaries, including Pancho Villa. His eventual strikes into the United States would garner much attention and he would soon be a folk hero to Mexican peasants.
Having fled to the United States, Madero and his supporters devised the San Luis Potosi which called for a general revolt against the Diaz regime. It would ignite rebellions across Mexico led by men like Aquiles Serdan, Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Venustiano Carranza. While their all strove to defeat the Diaz regime their methods often contradicted each other. While Madero was a liberal capitalist the men that answered his call of rebellion often where not, anarchists, socialists and simple banditos all answered the call.
By 1911 Mexico had become a severely destabilized; Diaz had been forced to flee to Paris where he would spend the rest of his life. All across the country forces loyal to one fraction or another fought for control. To the north the United States kept a wary eye that threatened to spill over the border. By the time Woodrow Wilson had been elected the conflict had been ongoing for two years with no signs of letting up, there where isolated incidents in which revolutionary forces had crossed the border to spread mayhem. President Wilson took these reports seriously, but with a growing tension across the Atlantic and a civilian population that was unworried about the affairs of other nations there was nothing substantive that could be done.
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America the Unprepared
The New Years celebrations where especially rowdy for 1914, large crowds danced well into the night in all the major American cities. While the newspapers reported almost daily about the Mexican Civil War, Cuban and Filipino revolts and to a lesser extent the European tension the populace was content. The Wilson administration had so far broken from the idea that it was weak having so far passed several key progressive legislations. The Spanish-American war was a distant memory and war was the last thing on most American's lives.
The American military of 1914 was much the same as it had been over fifteen years ago when the war with Spain was in full swing. While the country maintained large garrisons on Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines the commitment at home was less so having only four full divisions to protect the continental United States. These divisions - three infantry and one cavalry where located at New York, Houston, San Francisco and Sacramento. At full strength the current army could barely muster 100,000 men. This was in sharp contrast to the millions that European powers could hope to muster in case of a general mobilization; however the America did not have compulsorily conscription and thus was dependant on an all volunteer force, much the same as Great Britain. Naval wise the United States was far superior, in 1914 the nation had the third largest fleet in the world. The navy possessed thirty modern battleships, over half of them Dreadnaughts in their own right.
Major General Leonard Wood, Chief of Staff during 1914. He advocated the expansion of the peacetime army to eight full divisions for the continental United States, as well as air force expansion.
Upon the election of Woodrow Wilson two years earlier the leadership of the Army was stirred up as usual. Party favorites were elected to the highest levels of the government and new men took up command of the nations troops. 1912 was no different. Wilson would select Major General Leonard Wood as his Army Chief of Staff, keeping his position from the Taft administration. A physician during the Cleveland and McKinley administrations he would befriend Theodore Roosevelt before the Spanish-American war and when conflict broke out would join him in commanding the famous Rough Riders. After the war he was appointed the military commander of first Santiago and then all of Cuba. Eventually he would command the Philippines division and in 1912 would be selected by Taft to be the Army Chief of Staff. Retained by Wilson he would espouse the need for the U.S. army to fight decisive battles in a time of war.
Major General George S. Patton. He would command the cavalry under General Tasker Bliss's 1st Corps stationed in Texas.
For the actual unit commands Wilson took more of a hand in the selections. While he left Wood to select the majority of the commanders he personally requested that General Tasker Bliss be appointed to the command of the 2nd Infantry Division based in Houston. Bliss was an artillery officer who had graduated from West Point and served during the Spanish-American war with the 1st Division. He served in various command roles up until the elected of Woodrow Wilson when he was formally offered the command of the 2nd Infantry. Furthermore he would command the 1st Corps that would be forming in Texas to dissuade Mexican troops from crossing the border. The 1st Cavalry Division would be commanded by a young Cavalry officer would had graduated from West Point only five years earlier and had recently participated in the Stockholm Olympics - George S. Patton. To finish off the 1st Corps would be the 1st Division itself, again commanded by a young officer Andrew Dagley. Born in Canada his family immigrated to New York state early in his life, he joined the Army in 1901 and rose through the ranks quickly taking posts both in Cuba and the Philippines. The most recent posting he would first be tasked with relocating his division close to Dallas to join the 2nd Infantry and 1st Cavalry near the Mexican border.
There were two other notable postings in early 1914; firstly the 3rd Infantry Division was placed in the hands of Major General Romalar, a personal friend of the President. He was untried and untested in regards to military affairs and had only briefly served in both Cuba and a desk job in Washington; it was a decision that grated on General Wood in what would soon become a long line of unintentional insults to the Chief of Staff. Secondly Vice Admiral Atragon was placed in command of the Asiatic Fleet based in Manila. The force itself was small, barely a fleet and consisted of three cruisers and a dozen destroyers.
Vice Admiral Atragon would be placed in command of the Asiatic Fleet, based in Manila. His same taskforce included three cruisers, he would select the USS Saratoga to be his flagship due to its high speed and heavy armlament.
The Asiatic fleet was comprised of the USS Saratoga - once called the USS New York her hull was laid down in 1890. She was the only vessel that had seen combat previous shelling the Cuban coast line during the Spanish-American war, capable of 21 knots she was still one of the fastest ships in the taskforce. The second cruiser was the USS Pittsburgh, once again she had been renamed from previously being the USS Pennsylvania to free up the name for the new battleship. She was only slightly faster then the older Saratoga and less armed as well having only four 8-inch guns in comparison to the Saratoga's six. The third cruiser was the newest the USS Denver commissioned in 1904 she was the slowest of the ships, capable of only 16 knots and only hefting ten 5-inch guns. The Denver had spent most of her career so far patrolling the Caribbean and investigating same disturbances in Haiti and Cuba. Vice Admiral Atragon considered the Denver to be a liability and stated to William Benson - the current Chief of Navy that the ship would only slow down his taskforce in the event of any conflict. The response was non-committal.
While the Presidents choice of military commanders could be considered weak his cabinet was a mixed bag. He had early on selected William Jennings Bryan to be his foreign minister a move that was considered by many Washington insiders to be a repayment of the help Jennings had given Wilson in obtaining the Democratic nomination two years earlier. As his Secretary of the Treasury Wilson had selected the former California senator William Gibbs McAdoo, a strong proponent of the creation of the Federal Reserve he would prove to be only of the early strengths for the Democratic administration. Wilson would also select Alexander Bielaski to be the FBI Director during his term; he had earlier reorganized the Oklahoma legal system after the area formally became a state.
With cabinet and all of the important military positions now occupied the President had to turn his focus to a more important thing, the fiscal budget of 1914. While the democrats now constituted the majority in both the house and senate most Democrats were non-committal to any sort of funding increase for the military, something that Leonard Woof was asking for in January. He strongly advocated the doubling of the existing army to eight full divisions on the continent as well as tripling the size of the army air force to include three recon squadrons. While Wilson promised him something he could not offer much, most of the existing funding was going towards the enlargement of the Great While Fleet and while the budget could possibly include laying down several more ships it was unlikely that General Wood would get even half of the things he wanted.
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The Quiet Before the Storm
The federal budget, with war on the horizon and pressure from all circles in the armed forces President Wilson had to in some way appease his Chiefs of Staff. The 1914 federal budget was only expected to be $675,000,000. This figure had to not only fund the government for the year but also had to set up and implement the slew of new social programs that President Wilson had so far set up including the new Federal Reserve. The 1913 budget had only stipulated a $35 million budget for the army, almost half of the budget had gone towards the new Pennsylvania class super-dreadnaughts. The recent federal budgets had so far been predisposed towards the Navy having successfully funded a string of new battleships since the inception of the Wilson administration. The first of these, the USS New York and USS Texas were to formally commissioned by the end of spring.
Major General Wood tired of seeing endless Navy budget increases and with little or no increases to the army itself was set to try and reverse the trend, tirelessly explaining the reasons for an army budget increase. The President while not enthusiastic was open to General Wood's ideas and while no new battleships would be laid down in the 1914 fiscal year the expansion of the army would still be modest. The President was more enthusiastic about further air craft experimentation, especially in regards to its potential battlefield uses. While most men of the time still did not fully contemplate the potential effects the air craft would present in war it was evident that Woodrow Wilson while not fully understanding the basic details did have a vision in regards to the machines use.
The 1914 budget would hit the Congress floors in late January. The finalized document would have a $42 million dollar defense budget, a significant increase over the previous years. True to his word the President did not authorize any increase in Naval spending, a decision that did not sit well with the current Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral William S. Benson. Instead the budget detailed further increases to the army and air force. Two more divisions were to be created by the end of the year, one infantry and one cavalry; as well the air force would double in size to two full squadrons or forty eight aircraft total. While the President faced harsh criticism from the Republican side of congress for the military increases the budget was still passed without problems in a minimum of time. Immediately the army began a solid campaign drive asking for volunteers for not only the infantry and cavalry division but also for pilots the first request that had been so far made in regards to that position.
The Curtiss JN-4, also know as the Jenny would be the first USAAF air craft
The aircraft the air force would be using was the Curtiss JN4 in 1914 it was the only operation air craft in the USAAF. With a full 90 horsepower engine the Jenny as the pilots affectionately called it had a top speed of 75 miles per hour and could reach a maximum height of six five hundred feet. She was used primarily for training purposes but plans had already been outlined in regards to using the aircraft as forward recon assets in case of a conflict in Mexico.
With the opening of the Panama Canal the United States was in control of one of the worlds most important strategic assets.
History was made on January 24th, 1914 when the Panama Canal was officially opened. Though the canal was finished in October of 1913 the final preparations had taken several more months, hailed as a wonder of the modern world it was indeed a marvelous feat. It had taken over a decade and over five thousand lives but through blood, toil and a large amount of capital a canal had been blasted through the Panama Isthmus over fifty miles in length, it was capable to allowing the largest ships of the era to pass from the Pacific into the Caribbean in mere hours when just months before the same feat would require a lengthy trip around South America. Trade routes were set to be revolutionized and more importantly the United States now possessed one of the most important military assets on the earth. This fact was not lost on the military or the current administration and the Canal Zone was on a 99 year lease to the United States from Panama.
It may have been the most important engineering landmark in modern history, but almost more chilling is the fact that the final blow was made by a man not within sight of the canal, but a man four thousand miles away in his office. So much power in one man's hands, would this be an omen of more chilling things to come? After the celebration over the official opening abated things returned to normal but all that was to change in early March.
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The Vera Cruz Incident
In March of 1914 the Mexican Civil War was still going strong, while the former President of Mexico had fled to Paris three years earlier in fighting destroyed any sort of equitable peace that could have been reached. The man who had began the whole affair Francisco Madero had then assumed the Presidency, however his policies contradicted with many of his previous supporters such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, the civil war continued. In this time of strife the new President made a fatal mistake, trusting the former military elite from the Diaz regime he was ejected from power and eventually executed by Victoriano Huerta.
Francisco Madero the 38th President of Mexico (left) and Victoriano Huerta the 40th President of Mexico. Madero was the victim of a coup by Huerta, not shown is the 39th President who lasted one hour in his job.
With Madero now out of the picture Huerta became the 40th President of Mexico. He had ascended through the military during the Diaz regime to the rank of General. When the civil war started he was able to defeat a strong force led by Zapata in the Yucatan, after Diaz fled he pledged allegiance to the new government. He was however disloyal and soon hatched a plot to overthrow the leftist government in place. With the help of US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson and Felix Diaz (Porfirio Diaz's nephew) he successfully overthrew the government and destroyed all measures that had been made to successfully end the civil war in Madero's two year Presidency. In comparision to the previous government Huerta was quick to impose a harsh military dictatorship not unlike the one that had initially sparked the revolution. Relations with the United States suffered as a result as newspapers reported new rounds of atrocities committed in the war. While the administration had made no moves following the takeover to recognize or disavow the Mexican government these new reports forced a policy clarification. Wilson went on the record to condemn the strife that plagued Mexico but avoided the issue of recognizing the new government stating that "while General Huerta proclaims that he has legally restored the Mexican democratic government, it is clear to any outside observer that Mexico has no government". Wilson went further calling Huerta "false... sly... full of bravado... seldom sober and always irresponsible"
Little came of the overthrow of the Madero government in the United States however. General Wood took it into account when creating the 1st Corps but outside of military circles the issue took little precedence. This all changed when in early March in 1914 Mexican troops from the Huerta government arrested several drunken US Marines in Vera Cruz. While this action alone constituted a small diplomatic incident it was further enhanced when it was found that several of the marines were taken off the USS Dolphin an American gunboat docked at the cities harbor. Since the gunboat was an extension of US territory this proved to be a grave mistake by the Mexican officers in Vera Cruz. The marines were released the next day and word filtered back to the Wilson administration about the incident. President Wilson did not take the matter as trivial and considered it a slight against the nation, spurred on by previous slights commited by Huerta the American foreign minister in Mexico City - Henry Lane Wilson delivered a three point ultimatum to Huerta himself that read as follows...
The USS Dolphin, commissioned in 1885 she had previous steamed around the world several times before the Vera Cruz incident in which several of her crew were detained by Mexican soldiers and the ship boarded.
The American foreign minister to the Huerta regime in Mexico City will deliver this document to Victoriano Huerta at noon on the fifth of March.
As a result of the actions perpetrated by several Mexican officers less then a week hence the United States has legal grievance with the Mexican government. Such actions would not be needed had our government saw a public sign of punishment of the guilty officers in Vera Cruz, yet none have been seen and the officers still remain at their posts in the city.
This is an offense that one civilized country cannot take from another. While this has been the most prominent slight to the character of the United States government it has not been the only one in recent months, nor since the beginning of the Huerta Presidency. While our government has taken numerous slights from the officials not only in Vera Cruz but Mexico City as well other governments do not report the same hostile actions. The apprehension of over a dozen United States marines, several of them from aboard a United States vessel has only confirmed our notion that Mexican government does not care for the legality of its actions, domestically or internationally.
As a result the Mexican government must pledge itself to fulfilling the following measures within twenty four hours.....
1. A public apology by President Huerta for the illegal apprehension of United States Marines in Vera Cruz
2. Dismissal of the guilty officers in Vera Cruz and legal punishment of officers that ordered the arrest of Marines stationed on the USS Dolphin
3. A twenty four gun salute to the American flag by the Vera Cruz garrison to indicate a new spirit and attitude of respect and mutual friendship between our two governments.
These three measures are to be implemented by no later then forty eight hours after the deliverance of this document or the United States government will consider our measures to be rejected and will take appropriate measures to enforce these measures as needed.
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Chapter One - The Great War
The world had come far from only fourteen years earlier, while leaps of science and wealth did come quickly to the nations on the planet many on the world stage did not anticipate the outbreak of war which was soon to come. While the comparatively wealthy elite of Europe and America viewed the world as getting ever better they did not see the chaos that ruled behind the scenes. As families said grace and ate their meals the fates of millions were being made by a few souls who would not bare the burden of the loss that was soon to be made.
The cracks upon the façade of peace began early in the century when optimism was still strong around Europe. First the Russo-Japanese war took place, though it was far away it forced the leaders of Europe to take notes. The Turco-Italian war and the two Balkan wars came next, each striking closer to Europe. As 1914 dawned on the world it could be seen by a few that eventually a general European war was only a matter of time. While it had taken over a dozen years for that precious optimism to start fading it still remained and would only be shattered as the first shots were fired on the Western Front.
In America this mattered little, isolation was the word of choice and the Monroe doctrine was still the guide to American foreign policy. Presidents had put much thought into avoiding a protracted European war but would it prove enough? Mexico was imploding to the south and early in 1914 the Revolution seemed to be spilling over both in Texas from Pancho Villa's raids and in Vera Cruz with the Tampico Affair.
By April the smell of war was on the air, but barely anyone noticed.
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Mexico Responds
The ultimatum was not received well by the Huerta led government in Mexico City. Huerta himself was said to be shrill with anger at the American's arrogant claims, the words that were spoken in the night following the deliverance of the article are best not to be repeated, but the readers can no doubt imagine what was said. Tempers calmed however but permanent damage had been done to American-Mexican relations, soon after the American ambassador was escorted out of the city, bound for Vera Cruz and then Washington. While the ultimatum had stated American intentions quite clearly the initiative was now with Huerta as President Wilson awaited a response from his southern counterpart. To Victoriano Huerta this incident could not have come at a worse time, Pancho Villa and Zapata still threatened his government from both north and south, but now he had to contend with an angry United States government, his Presidency did not look quite as secure as it previously had just a week earlier.
In Vera Cruz all the Marines had returned to their ships, the USS Dolphin had left dock and was staying several miles off shore in the Gulf of Mexico. A division of Mexican troops had entered the port city within days of the American ultimatum trusting that this affair would most likely end in war between the two countries, many of the officers had seen how America responded to slights against her armed forces in wake of the Spanish-American war. Even now a task force of American vessels - the new battleships New York and Texas included were steaming south from Norfolk naval base to their destination in the Gulf area. The first squadron of Curtiss JN-4's had arrived in Southern Texas under the command of a young Lt. Colonel Mettermrck, he was a strong proponent of the use of aircraft in battle and if a war with Mexico did start up it would be him leading any reconnaissance flights over Mexican territory.
The USS New York steams south from Norfolk bound to the Gulf of Mexico in response to the worsening American-Mexican relations.
The military acknowledged that any fight through Mexico would most likely be either very costly, or very easy. After years of civil war the combatants must have been exhausted, close to empty when it came to new recruits, moral was sure to be lacking and any Mexican forces were sure to break under the pressure of an American assault. General Bliss was confident in his Corps ability penetrate several hundred miles into Mexican territory and depose of the Huerta government if need be, in Washington his argument was being taken seriously. In the event of hostilities it was decided that General Tasker Bliss would lead a punitive expedition into Mexico to dethrone the Huerta government.
General Tasker Bliss, Commander of the 1st Army Corps would lead any American effort in regards to war with a hostile Mexico.
Through all of this the man who the American government was focusing their rage on was not being complacent. In addition to moving a division of his regular forces into the Vera Cruz area the dictator had begun preparation of a counter-ultimatum to the American foreign secretary - William Jennings Bryan. It stated among other things that American forces were to "withdraw from Mexican territory no later then April 15th", the document was to go on further stating such things as "American personnel from the USS Dolphin with present a twenty one gun salute to the Mexican flag and personnel apology must be made by President Woodrow Wilson to the President of Mexico". The Mexican ambassador presented the letter to Foreign Secretary Bryan on the 1st of April; he knew that the document he held would essentially guarantee a war between Mexico and America. William Jennings Bryan had to read the document three times before he could let the information contained within sink in, he grabbed his coat and proceeded to the Oval Office, a grave look on his face. His last thought before leaving his office was that Huerta must have gone insane.
American Foreign Secretary William Jennings Bryan looks gravely at the Mexican ultimatum.
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Oval Office, Washington D.C.
William Jennings Bryan had just entered the Oval Office; President Wilson was sitting at his desk when he entered. The President didn't look up or otherwise acknowledge the presence of Jennings; he was often like that, usually lost in a document of some innate interest to the man. The document Jennings held would elicit more interest then whatever the President currently held however he thought.
"What is it William? I told the men outside not to let anyone in at this hour, I am trying to review General Woods budget proposals for next year." Wilson finally looked up at the foreign minister; his voice showing a slight tiredness that Bryan never acknowledged but knew was there.
"Mr. President; I was given a document from the Mexican foreign minister here in Washington just a few minutes ago. The contents....the contents I must say are, well it is best that you read it yourself." Bryan approached the Presidents desk and laid the sheet of paper on the table. "I had to read it several times before I was able to swallow the whole of this message."
President Wilson picked up the piece of paper and set about reading its contents, the other man in the room could observe the Presidents eyes narrowing slowly as it past through the pages contents. The air in the room slowly gave way to a stifling heat that Bryan knew was not there, only a side effect of the growing rage that showed on the Presidents face.
President Woodrow Wilson having read the Mexican Ultimatum.
"The message was not the only thing sir, the Mexican ambassador informed me that he would be returning to his country until more hospitable relations are made between our countries." As Bryan finished the President finished reading the document and laid it back down upon the table. Surprisingly he let out a sigh, something that Bryan was not expecting. The anger still showing on his face he got up out of the chair and turned to face the windows behind his desk.
"You know this constitutes a direct slap in the face of this country Jennings. I - no we, cannot abide such a disrespect against our nation, the just measures we demanded out of Huerta have been spit back at us, full of venom. That jackal must be insane; he knows this is basically a declaration of war between our countries, one that we cannot refuse I am afraid." It was dawning on Bryan that this was not the same man he had fought for the Democratic nomination nearly three years ago, the office had weighed heavily upon him and it showed. Even with his back turned, the President was showing the strain that his duty was taking on him. "After the incident in Vera Cruz and the subsequent actions by Huerta's government, I had thought about this actually leading to war, but I never thought it would come to this. The history books will condemn Huerta for his bold demands, he had the power to prevent a war, but instead he has started one."
The President sat back in down and reached for his phone, three numbers later he had a direct line with General Leonard Wood, he summoned him to the White House and did the same thing for General Tasker Bliss and surprisingly the young aviation officer the President had spoken about several times before. With that finished the President clasped his hand together over his brow, let loose a sigh and told Bryan to wait outside while the army men traveled to the White House.
While he waited Jennings traveled to the left wing of the building and met Patsy Heinrich, unknown to his wife they had been having an affair for two months. She was the daughter of a German immigrant, within days of their meeting the two of them were entangled in a relationship that if widely known would not only ruin Jennings marriage, but his career as well. Unknown to him she had connections with the German government, she collected small tidbits of information and pasted them onto her contact in the German embassy, no one was the wiser. What had started, as an affair with the office secretary was fast becoming something far more insidious.
After a quick session with Ms. Heinrich the foreign secretary returned to the room next to the Oval Office to find General Tasker Bliss and Lt. Colonel Mettermrck debating as usual.
"..and I tell you son, the United States army doesn't need any of this new aero planes as you call them, since the dawn of our nation we haven?t needed airplanes, and we don't need none now!" That was Bliss again; anyone who met him in person would know two things about him in five minutes. He loved his country and he hated the growing air corps.
The young man who he was vocally berating was none other then the young Colonel Clemens Mettermrck, still young he possessed wisdom beyond his years and though he was often involved in heated debates Bryan had never seen him raise his voice.
Lt. Colonel Clemens Mettermrck, commander of the United States Army Air Force; 1914
"If you think your men can just saunter into Mexico without any trouble you're in for a surprise General. I've seen the roads you need to traverse to reach Mexico City from five thousand feet, you propose to take all of First Corps along those roads, and I say that cannot be done. You also neglected to mention the Mexican rebels that control that territory, its been proven that Villa and the other rebels have no love for us, what makes you think they'll let us pass unmolested" Those eyes of the Colonel were said to have a piercing gaze and Bryan could see that now, they set in towards the General with amazing speed but he was undeterred.
"How would you know a wit about combat son, you weren't even twenty when we fought the last war and you presume to lecture me about tactics as you stay safe in your flying wooden casket." Retorted the General. Unknown to all of them the Army Chief of Staff had arrived behind them and cleared his throat.
"Am I interrupting anything gentleman?" The two officers turned and crisply saluted their commander but Mettermrck got in the last word.
"...don't tell me I don't know how a war will go. I've seen what Mexico will do to an unprepared opponent, we'll get chewed up and spit out all the way to the Rio Grande." That was all Jennings overheard before the four of them reentered the Oval Office.
It took only a few minutes before the three new arrivals had read the Mexican ultimatum. Everyone in the room knew that the document virtually meant war between America and her southern neighbour. Wilson during this time remained seated still in the same position he was in when Jennings had left him earlier. Finally he spoke up.
"General Bliss, how long until your Army Corps can move into Mexico?" The question surprised all in the room but Bliss quickly answered.
"It will take about two weeks to get all our men to the border and start to move into the northern parts of the country. We'll have over forty thousand men in Mexico by the end of the month if need be and another forty thousand available if need be. It shouldn't take long before we reach Mexico City and capture Huerta himself." The General had a look of smugness upon his face as he finished up, something Colonel Mettermrck didn't take kindly too but the President silenced him before he could offer his opinion.
"Good, and the operational name of this?" The General looked back at the President, he would have called it something different just an hour before; a week earlier it was simply Plan A but now....."
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Mexican Suicidal Tendencies
The response to the Mexican ultimatum was quick to materialize. President Wilson, his cabinet and the top military officers conveyed quickly and unknown to the public the decision for war was already settled on. The press was leaked the entire document and led by William Randolph Hearst, the majority of respectable papers began calling for war, citing the Mexican letter as being "reprehensible....vile to America....flagrant abuse from our southern neighbour". Within only a few days the popular support of the country was with the idea of invading the Huerta controlled Mexico provinces and ultimately the deposition of the right-wing dictator.
President Wilson did not neglect this news, he had never liked Huerta and with the almost suicidal note sent to the American government he now had a chance to eliminate that thorn in his side. Wilson would speak in front of the U.S. Congress in late March seeking a declaration of war against Mexico in response to the "apprehensible and demeaning comments made by a petty Mexican dictator against his great northern neighbor". His speech was interrupted over a dozen times as the assembled politicians erupted in applause again and again. The next day newspapers ran headlines proclaiming war with Mexico and editorials filled their pages with optimistic banter proclaiming that the war would be over before fall. Many neglected to mention any of the rumblings that were still coming out of Europe but like always Europe was of little consequence, why should they matter when it was time to show Mexico who is boss.
With war in the air thousands of young Americans rushed to the army recruitment stations, some thinking it a duty to their country, some looking for action and excitement, others still for their own personal excitement. The amount of men was too large for the army to fully train with current facilities and as such they were given the minimum among of training, the older weapons and formed into "Homefront Guards" to be stationed near the border of Mexico. For the next several months the army brass said they would patrol the border, dig entrenchments and practice basic army skills such as marksmanship. This left only General Bliss and his 1st Corps to attack into Mexico itself.
The creation of the Homefront Guards was an important step by the United States Army. While it could not fully train all of the recruits that signed up following the declaration of war, it could however form several militia quality units to defend the long border.
The Operation to drive into Mexico City was optimistically called "Rejected Ultimatum" coined by Tasker Bliss himself. It called for little originality or finesse, instead Bliss envisioned a straight up push into the heart of Mexico to depose Victoriano Huerta. The relative ease of this operation depended on the leftist rebels that controlled much of the northern area of the country. The United States would have to deal with dangerous guerillas such as Pancho Villa to secure to easy passage, something that many members of the military believed to be impossible, mostly because dealing with these groups would give them formal recognition by the government. Many in Washington were not interested in dealing with anarchists and leftist guerillas which were still seen in the United States as being against the fabric of America, mostly because of the McKinley assassination and later Theodore Roosevelt's public distain of these groups.
The navy had early on proposed another plan of action. Instead of attacking directed from the Rio Grande through untended roads and hospitable territory a large landing force should be put into Vera Cruz and march to Mexico City. Many in the military thought it would be an easier approach and would allow American forces to bypass any leftist rebels, but General Bliss was wary of the Navy, showing his distain for the branch several times in the past. Any changes to the tentatively titled Operation was subject to his approval and like any proposal that mentioned the Navy in anything larger then a tertiary manner it was rejected out of hand. Instead it seemed that General Bliss had his eyes set on a land based campaign through the rough trails and roads in the Monterrey and Chihuahua provinces.
Therefore the task of invading Mexico was tasked to three divisions - 1st Infantry, 2nd Infantry and the 1st Cavalry. Less then sixty thousand men would take part in the invasion with double that number in training, defending the border behind them. The plan called for the 1st Infantry under Major General Dagley to move into Chihuahua, secure the area and defend the Corps left flank from the Mexicans. Meanwhile 2nd Infantry and 1st Cavalry would proceed through Monterrey into Mexico City to topple the Huerta government. General Bliss estimated less then five thousand casualties and an end of hostilities by late September. President Wilson personally looked over the plan and though he was a novice in regards to military tactics he approved the plan himself saying that "it is the pinnacle of American military preparation and expertise, there is no doubt in my mind that General Bliss has crafted a master plan that with weather anything the Mexicans will throw at him"
Only one major adjustment was made to the Operation. That was in regards to the use of aircraft; General Bliss had adamantly opposed any use of the machines saying it would only draw resources needed to properly fight the war. Others including his superior Leonard Wood thought it would be best to use the available Curtiss JN-5's to conduct low flying reconnaissance above the ground forces and report to the front with intelligence. Lt. Colonel Mettermrck would oversee the deposition of those forces, allowing the aircraft to be used on a divisional basis because of aircraft shortages that would plague the USAAF until a second squadron was delivered in the future.
The finalized plan for Rejected Ultimatum, three divisions in total would strike into northern Mexico, bound for the capital. The war was expected to be over by fall if this plan is fully realized.
While preparations began in earnest to get the 1st Corps moving over the Rio Grande the diplomatic channels had been extended to the Mexican rebels in the north of the country despite many big players in Washington being adamant about not dealing with those groups. Dealing with the likes of Pancho Villa was not an easy task however and despite several offers no deal could be reached in regards to safe passage through rebel territory - Pancho Villa intended to attack any American forces that crossed into territory held by his forces, many other groups held to the same tenant. The nest of vipers that were collectively called the Mexican resistance to the Huerta regime was not going to stand America's involvement. The enemy of my enemy was apparently not the United States friend, indeed it seemed all of Mexico was arrayed against America. This didn't matter to men like Bliss and Patton however; the General went so far as to boast - "we'll kill twenty Mexicans for every American they kill".
Mexican Rebels wanted nothing to do with the American government, including letting troops pass through rebel territory.
As units prepared to carry out their initial orders for Operation Rejected Ultimatum and with more citizen soldiers manning the border every day it appeared that moral and confidence for the war was at a high. But no plan survives the opening engagement they say, would America falter where the men such as Tasker Bliss say she will triumph? Only time will tell.
